"A Life Versus Death Struggle:"  If the Medical Profession Calculates the Value of Life on an Economical Basis, Who Calculates the Value of Death?

By Trudy A. Martinez

Once upon a time in America, an individual was guaranteed the right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". Then death was a natural process. The meaning of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" changes with the growth of the Medical industry. Life itself becomes a pursuit of the medical profession, leaving the value of death obscure as medicine views death as a failure and the right to die hinders medicines’ quest for technological immorality.

Because death is a failure to the medical profession, the prolonging of life by artificial means rejects bereavement, leaving death with no place in life. When Mary Catherine Bateson examines, "What is needed to give death its proper place in life?" She says, "In rejecting death, [society sets itself] against nature"(8). "Having interfered with the process . . . [society] should accept the fact that the cast and glory of technical progress is to require choice: . . . choice of how to die"(8).

In other words, Bateson advocates the "right to die". In 1971, the Supreme Court rules “there is no constitutional right to choose to die" (Kearl 412). Nevertheless, death does not necessitate constitutional approval. Death is a natural process.

On the other hand, death revolts physicians since natural death hinders medicine's quest for technological immortality (Guillemin 32). Therefore, "dying . . . is not something the individual patient . . . really does, [dying] is a matter of . . . withdrawing life supports" (Guillemin 32). Many doctors feel to choose to die over maintaining life on life support is committing suicide. In ancient time, “because life was so trivialized, Romans and Greeks raised few moral objections to suicide, and they usually only protested suicide when it caused economic or social loss"(Barry 25).

Life in America, on the other hand, is not trivialized; instead, life is immortalized, causing death to lose its right. As a result, in an immortal society for an individual to re-claim the natural right of death, he resorts to what the medical institutions now define as suicide, unplugging the machines. Such a death does not constitute a social loss when the individual's quality of life is gone. To retain life that has loss quality causes an unnecessary economical drain on the family and the patient, while at the time, it has the opposite affect on medical professionals; they benefit economically. Although a medical professional may believe he has the patient's best interest at heart, not always does he serve the patient’s best interest. This is especially true when considering the spiraling cost of maintaining life supports in the equation.

"If antiquity privatized suicide and objected only when there was economic or social loss, Medieval Christianity saw a deeper meaning and value in life"(Barry 26). However, in current times, death to a Christian has more value than life as the medical institutions defines life. For a Christian death brings life forever after. Yet, life, in the sense of forever, is in heaven, not on earth. To some dying individuals, whether Christian or not, death has worth; it ends suffering and pain. To the Medical industry, life has worth; it increases profits, while at the same time, decreases a sense of failure. Consequently, a safeguard to the health-care profession's own perception of adequacy requires the devaluation of death.

When death is devalued, the voice of the people rings out: "Whose death is it, anyway?” (Seligmann 69). Once, death came naturally. Then, a decision to die was not necessary. However, technology changes all that. For example, the question asked about Carrie Coons, 86, was "Does she want to die?" Such a question is unfair. Nobody wants to die if his or her life has a promise of quality. However, Mrs. Coons lost through deprivation a quality of life. She was "kept alive by a feeding tube," a state "her doctor called a 'persistent vegetative state'"(69). "Dr. Michael Wolff . . . called her chances of recovery 'nil'"(69). Even though she was in a vegetative state with no hope of recovery, Mrs. Coon's sister had to seek and receive a court order "to have the feeding tube removed"(69). With total disregard for the family wishes and with the knowledge that her chances of recovery were non-existent, the doctor requests a hearing that blocks the order "to remove the feeding tube". Why? Because doctors believe in order for death to be natural, it requires a decision. When the doctor asks Mrs. Coons "whether she wanted her feeding tube removed", she answers, "according to Wolff, it would be a difficult decision"(69). Wolff assumes her answer implies she wants to live regardless of her quality of life. Yet, is this really the case? Her sister says, "From the look in her eyes . . . she [is] trying to tell me, 'Let me go'" (69). She lingers now "in limbo until she either speaks clearly or dies"(69). In other words, her sentence is a life of suffering, not a life of happiness, but one that is literally a "Hell on Earth".

In the past when our ancestors cried: Give me life, liberty, or death, little did they know that when life is given, liberty is curtailed, and death is denied. ". . .To dispense death is one [decision] in which society as a whole has no interest"(The Economist 60). Today ". . . autonomy decides . . . the ‘right to die’ but it is a principle that . . . leans toward life, not death"(The Economist 60). This is probably so because most people want to live. Nevertheless, some want to end the suffering and pain and die as naturally as possible. They want "To civilize death, to bring it home and make it no longer a source of dread . . . . The road leads . . . to acceptance and understanding" (The Economist 60).

Not all doctors agree abandoning treatment achieves the primary good or that an individual has the capability to decide for himself. For instance, Dr. David C. Stolinsky, M.D. says, lawyers and ethicists persuade us to regard “. . . The cessation of active treatment for the senile or incurably ill and the omission of effective treatment at the patient's request . . . as definite goods to be eagerly embraced . . . . [Therefore, the] competing good--beneficence--has been largely displaced. . . . [In addition] autonomy has out paced beneficence. . . I believe it is a mistake to make [autonomy] superior to ‘Thou shalt not kill’ . . . . But those who encourage it, even for the best motives, are in fact performing an experiment with all of us as subjects . . . I don't recall giving my informed consent" (Appelbaum 2).

The trouble with doctors like Stolinsky is they feel they are superior and they should rule over a patient's right to autonomy.

Stolinsky says, too much autonomy can lead to blaming the patient for his illness, an abdication of responsibility for decision-making, an uncaring attitude toward society's unfortunates, and (in the extreme) allowing various "undesirable" to die as we stand by (Appelbaun 2).

He says autonomy should not be superior to "Thou shalt not kill", but in fact, unknowingly, he puts beneficence superior to "Thou shalt not steal." When technology deprives a patient of death by supporting a life lacking of quality has not a theft occurred? Because of these type of circumstances, patients like L. McAfee are being forced to "petition . . . [courts] for permission to turn off" ventilators or other artificial means that purport to "prolong life", when in actuality, they are only "prolonging death" (Death Wish 67).

McAfee's death was prolonged after ". . . a motorcycle accident left him paralyzed from the neck down", leaving him dependent upon artificial means to maintain a life without quality or hope. McAfee won his right to autonomy, his right to refuse medical treatment. In winning his right to refuse medical treatment, McAfee gains his "death wish" (Death Wish 67). "McAfee's situation has revived a smoldering controversy over whether health-care providers should help the disabled commit suicide" (Death Wish 67). The question is disconnecting an artificial means that maintains an inadequate quality of life committing suicide? If Stolinsky were to decide, the answer would be yes. However, Stolinsky puts no value on death. On the other hand when you consider all McAfee wants is to allow the removal of artificial means that robs his death from him, the answer to the question should be no. When the value of life is not meaningful, the value of death is priceless. Judge Johnson found McAfee to be a rational adult and that his "death wish" had value. Consequently, he ruled that McAfee had the "right to refuse life-sustaining treatment. . . ." The Judge said, "The ventilator to which he is attached is not prolonging his life; it is prolonging his death"(Death Wish 67).

Life is "The heartache that has no end" in the case of Kim Goetchius. She suffers from a severe head injury received after she fell from a "careening golf cart". Since then, she has been in a persistent vegetative state for a period of eight years. Hope for her recovery is non-existent. Nevertheless, artificial means keeps her alive, hoping for a miracle. She is not alone; 10 percent of the patients at the St. John Dealon Hospital share the same status. The spiraling cost annually per patient suggests profits of the institution plays a role in the decision to maintain life supports. Why else would Kim's grave condition leave her doctor, Timothy Keay, agonizing "over the unanswerable question:" Are we ". . . protecting life or making a mockery of it?" (Buckley 54).

Not only is death prolonged but death also comes prematurely through unnecessary medical intervention. "Death comes from medical reason, not moral reasons” (Kearl 418) for the sake of profit. Evidence points to economic factors that leave the government with the bill. A Congressional investigation in 1977 discloses, "The likelihood of receiving unnecessary treatment is related to one's position in the status hierarchy. . . . Useless surgery being performed on the needy and the poor [occurs] at twice the rate of that of the general population"(Kearl 419). Needlessly, the useless surgery lead to profits as further evidence reveals "2.38 million unnecessary operations" cause "11,900 needless deaths" and reaps "4 billion dollars" in the process (Kearl 418-419). "In overthrowing . . . the moral [reasons], medicine must now address . . . how patterns of death [relate] to the economic . . . structure . . ."(Kearl 423).

Since life through the health care system "is being . . . sold in the marketplace and distributed on the basis of who can afford to pay for it (Kearl 423)," then it must hold true calculated financial factors determine the value of life. Successively, the value of death must come from the individual through the choice of not buying what is sold.

Not buying what is sold may mean not calling 911. Nine-one-one is a cry for help. If you do not wish help through resuscitation, have your family call the mortuary instead. A call to 911 brings paramedics and police officers. Once the call is made, all attempts possible will be made to resuscitate whether you want that or not. Only the immediate producing of a recorded copy of a Heath Care Power of Attorney can stop an unwanted procedure (the person with the power of attorney must be present to decline help). In addition and as a normal procedure, a police officer investigates the scene to insure no foul play has occurred. To eliminate the hassle, call the mortuary and claim the value of your death.

Bibliography:

Appelbaum, Paul S. "Death and the Doctors". Commentary. Vol.82. July ' 86. 2-4.
Barry, Robert "The Paradoxes of 'Rational' Death.” Society. Vol. 29. July/August ' 92. 29-33.
Bateson, Mary Catherine. "Death--the Undiscover'd Country": What is Needed to Give Death its Proper Place in Life? Omni. New York. April '92. vol. 14. p8.
Buckley, Jerry. "How Doctors Decide Who Shall Live, Who Shall
Die”: The Heartache Has No End. U.S. News & World Report.
January 22 '90. Vol. 108. 50-58.

"Death Wish": Quadriplegic L. Mc Afee Wins Right to Refuse
Medical Treatment. Time. Vol. 134. September 18 ' 89. p67.
The Economist. "How to 'Civilize' Death.” World Press Review.
Vol. 38. October '91. p60.

Guillemin, Jeanne. "Planning to Die". Society. Vol. 29. July/August '92. 29-33.
Kearl, Michael C. "Death and the Medical System.” Endings: A Sociology of Death and Dying. Oxford University Press: New York. 1989. 406- 453.

Seligmann, Jean "Whose Death is it, Anyway?” Newsweek. Vol. 113. April 24 '89. p69.

Noble Chivalry Shines, a Comparative Analysis of The Country Wife, The Mode of Man, and The Way of the World

By Trudy A. Martinez

The messages in the plays, The Country Wife, The Mode of Man, and The Way of the World, all communicate and center on a political universe. The supporting environment of the plays is not as obvious as the personal or social nature. Nevertheless, the representation of the characters is of a political nature. Through the comical characterizations of wit or lack of wit, the effectiveness, or weakness of an aristocratic perspective of honor, and respectability, (in regards to marriage and fidelity) falls upon public scrutiny. Each author contributes a viewpoint of the upper class populace deserving of corrective consideration. Only in Congreve's The Way of the World is the matchless disposition of a true noble reached, justifying social statue, and claim over the money elite.

Comparing and contrasting the maneuvers and the characters of all three plays reveals the genius of Congreve's complex Restoration comedy. Underneath Congreve's complex interaction of characters, there abides integrity of fair play, a perception of truth. Mirabell affirms this sense of truth. In the other two plays, there is not a solid match to Mirabell, although Dorimant comes close.

Where Dorimant lacks compassion for his former loves, Mirabell remains a friend, confidant, and an ultimate protector of Mrs. Fainall's reputation and wealth; he preserves a faculty of obligation. Through this sense of commitment, the association with noble chivalry shines and ultimately emphasizes responsibility of the noble ruling class.

Fainall, at first, appears as a perfect Restoration wit (in the same class as Mirabell). Nevertheless, later, he reveals himself as a villain, materialistic in nature with interests only in money and prestige. In his attempts to deceive, Mirabell (a true-wit in a noble capacity) out maneuvers him, leaving none of the demands he has made to Mrs. Wishfort fulfilled.

In the play The Country Wife, Wycherley explores the ideals of the city life versus country life. Ironic situations reveal the nature of the social and personal worlds of the characters. The demeanor surveyed is partially summed up by both Horner and Pinchwife in their discussion of what constitutes consideration in the taking a wife. Horner thinks "...Wit is more necessary than beauty..." for he considers "...no woman ugly that has it, and no handsome woman agreeable without it" (Wycherley 13). Dorimant shares a similar admiration for women possessing wit; he finds his match, and love in Harriet. On the other hand, Horner has no intention of limiting himself to one woman or of marrying. Instead, he fixes his intentions on enjoying his liberty and everyone else's wife. His elaborate scheme concocts to identify the willing and gain the confidence of the unsuspecting (the husbands). One of his prior statements sums up his ideology: "Wine gives you liberty” . . . and "love takes it away" (Wycherley 9).

In contrast to Horner's ideology, Pinchwife considers, the general truth of the matter to be, that ". . . he's a fool that marries, but he's a greater [fool] that does not marry a fool . . . .” Pinchwife's question reveals his reasoning, "What is wit in a wife good for, but to make a man cuckold? “ (Wycherley 13). Thus, Pinchwife justifies his method of chicanery by keeping a country wife as a whore. Through his actions, he believes he prevents himself from becoming cuckold by the deceitful practices of men like Horner.

The comedy of The Country Wife is set in motion in the opening line with an [aside] that confers clarity of meaning and necessity for the quack: "A quack is as fit for a pimp as a midwife for a bawd; they are still but in their way both helpers of nature.--"(Wycherley 4). The consequence of this line gives precedence to the technique of using [aside] (a device employed by the French playwright Moliere in Tartuffe) to succeed in the realization of the comical affect. In addition, Quack's verbal interaction with Horner furnishes the audience with first hand knowledge of Horner's devious purpose from the beginning of the play to the end.

As the play continues, a comical aspect of the social and personal worlds of the characters reveals the play’s direction by way of the cuckold dance.

Etherege's play, The Man of Mode, takes an altogether different direction when Dorimant opens the play with an articulate reference to the French Bourbon grandson of Louis XIV of France and great-grandson of Phillip IV of Spain:

"Now, for some ages, had the pride of Spain

made the sun shine on half the world in vain."

Thus, a focus of contrast between the French and English is set in motion. By proceeding in this manner, Etherege portrays the quality of nature following from a higher to lower level as if to suggest that political approaches are the cause of the deterioration of morales. Consequently, an achievement highlights through the portrayal of the characters a counter balance between the two ideologies. Sir Fopling’s characterizing astutely archetypes the augmentation of the French upper class. Whereas, the characterization of Dorimant portrays England's Prototype, born of title. Although Dorimant admits to the ideology of Hobbes that man is naturally depraved by saying, "Love gilds us over and makes us show fine things to one another for a time . . . soon the gold wears off, and then again the native brass appears"(Etherege 100), he does not accept the French King's adaptation of the concept. Instead, he sees through the false claim to nobility by Sir Fopling. The procurement of Sir Fopling's station in the social order (subjugated to Louis XIV) manifests through Sir Fopling's social blunders and recognizable, exaggerates elegancy and intelligence and then compares to the superior, natural wit and intelligence of the English noble through the interaction of the characters.

King Louis believes God gave him a divine right of power and declares, "I am the State". The theory of Hobbes, who states people are naturally brutal and nasty (and the government is established by them to protect themselves from themselves), gives Louis absolute power. The government is to govern the people; they have no choice but to be obedient. Stemming from this ideology, feudal nobles disappear as Louis gives honor and income to only those who earn his favor. As a result, the middle class purchase titles and are encouraged to do so through opportunity. Mannerism reign supreme over morales.

On the other hand, the English see intelligence and wit as superior qualities. The English exercising their choice with the restoration of the Stuart Line after Cromwell’s military dictatorship failed highlighted this difference. The belief was that the people gave the power to the King Charles II and the people had the right to take that power away. Intelligence and wit were the indication of notable worth, although the rising upper class put more significance in wealth than did the social class.

Etherege effectively conveyed the posture of the French and English through Dorimant (the true wit in The Man of Mode). Dorimant initiated the caricature significance of Sir Fopling's position by sharing his observation of Sir Fopling when he says, "...he affects in imitation of the people of quality of France"(Etherege 89). The significance of Sir Fopling appears to serve as a means of exaggerating the position of the money elite within the society, eager for fame and money--yet, irresponsible and somewhat ignorant. Like wise, in The Way of the World, Fainall imitates the people of quality in England. At first, he appears as a perfect Restoration Wit when he says, "...The coldness of a losing gamester lessens the pleasure of winner. I'd no more play with a man that slighted his ill fortune than I'd make love to a woman who undervalued the loss of her reputation"(Congreve 157). Dorimant had made a similar assertion when he said, "I would not have a woman have the least good thought of me that can think well of Fopling" (Etherege 101). They both exhibit jurisdiction, dominance, and control over their conquests. However, Dorimant is not greedy for wealth as is the case with Fainall. Fainall betrays himself. Consequently, his greed for money and prestige converts his characterization to a villain.

Sir Fopling's presentation of himself absolves Dorimant's delineation of Sir Fopling. For example, when errors made by mispronouncing words in an attempt to flatter Dorimant, Sir Fopling enhances the status of his own ignorance, "I have not met with any . . . who retain so much of Paris as thou dost--the very air thou hadst when the marquise mistook thee I' th' Tuileries and cried 'H'e, chevalier!’” (Etherege 109). Dorimant's reply, "I would fain wear in fashion as long as I can, sir. ‘ Tis a thing to be valued in men as well as baubles" (Etherege 109)) escapes the understanding of Sir Fopling. In other words, Sir Fopling is unable to cover up his ignorance with stylish clothes or mannerisms. Although Fainall is not as vain as Sir Fobling is in regard to mannerisms and dress, he lacks the integrity of that which is valued in men of quality and he exaggerates the relevance of material wealth.

In The Man of Mode, not much of the plot depends upon the interaction of the characters. Whereas, in The Way of the World, by the end of the first Act the whole plot is given away very cleverly through the interactions of Foible and Mrs. Fainall while the enemy listens in Lady Wishfort's closet in Act III. A rivalry between the characters disengages the movement the plot, enhancing the complexity, and distinguishing Congreve's style over the other playwrights.

For instance, a rivalry first begins in Act I with Mirabell and Fainall through Act V. In the final Act, the distinguishing qualities of both men are exposed. When Fainall takes his stand, his statement reflects his greed, "If it must all come out . . .'tis but the way of the world. That shall not urge me to relinquish or abate one title of my terms; no, I will insist the more"(Congreve 214). Nevertheless, Fainall is soon outwitted and surprised:

"What's here? Damnation! [Reads] 'A deed of conveyance of the whole estate real of Arabella Languish, widow, in trust to Edward Mirabell'. Confusion”! (Congreve 215). Mirabell answers, "tis the way of the world, sir, the widows of the world.”

Mirabell saves the day. His planning and execution of Waitwell's marriage to Foible has put him in control. Waitwell's disguise as Sir Roland conveys a message: Only a servant can affectively imitate the upper crust without detection.

Although all the plays to some extent depict both the personal world and social world, Congreve does not flaunt the sexual aspects of the situations. The concept he portrays extends more towards exposure of the misrepresentation of the aristocracy by the money elite.

In The Country Wife, the play gives direction and then ends and in The Man of Mode, the play is open- ended, leaving the audience guessing whether Dorimant really changes. However, The Way of the World, issues a warning:

"From hence let those be warned, who mean to wed,

Lest mutual falsehood stain the bridal bed;

For each deceiver to his cost may find,

That marriage frauds too oft are paid in kind" (Congreve 217).

This statement revives noble chivalry with its warning.

Bibliography:

Congreve, William. The Way of the World. The Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Comedy. A Norton Critical Edition. Scott McMillin, editor. W.W. Norton & Company: New York. 1973. 152-217.

Etherege, George. The Man of Mode. The Restoration and Eighteenth- Century Comedy. A Norton Critical Edition. Scott McMillin, editor. W.W. Norton & Company: New York. 1973. 79-151.

Wycherley, William. The Country Wife. The Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Comedy. A Norton Critical Edition. Scott McMillin, editor. W.W. Norton & Company: New York. 1973. 3-78.

"A Sense of Guilt” an analysis of Melville’s “Bartleby, the Scrivener”

By Trudy A. Martinez

In the year 1853, Herman Melville writes "Bartleby, the Scrivener"; he subtitles it "A Story of Wall Street". This is an interesting subtitle, considering he writes the story just prior to the Civil War and the great boom of the industrial era in America.

The story depicts a man, Bartleby, whose earnings are meager, a man who slowly loses hope of bettering himself or his position in life. On Wall Street, where Bartleby works, riches abound; but Bartleby "prefers not to" strife in what he believes is a hopeless situation.

Bartleby's employer, the lawyer (the narrator of the story), brings insight to the situation through his concern (and feeling of responsibility) for Bartleby by failing to respond to Bartleby's continual reply "I prefer not to". In this way, the lawyer acknowledges responsibility for Bartleby's hopelessness; the lawyer's sense of guilt centers on the work arrangement. Thus in part, the story of "Bartleby, the Scrivener", by Melville gives an answer to the question: Why did America wait nearly one hundred years after Europe before industrializing?

When considering the impact of "hopelessness" upon France, the answer is apparent. The resulting corruption of the French Industrialization and the French Revolution is still fresh in the minds of the greedy, the social elite, and the entrepreneurs in the western world. America's elite wants to prevent revolution, to prevent the slightest threat of repetition of the "French" example.

In France and England industrialization is a revolution, unplanned, uncalculated. If America is to follow suit and progress, her entrance into industrialization requires planning, predetermining, and thinking-out and most of all controlling. Therefore, not only do the salves need to be freed and given "hope" but also all the people need "hope", and token justice. Education needs to be mandatory, thus allowing for the conditioning of an "American Dream" through the compulsory school systems and behaviorism.

When industrialization hits America, the common people are prepared; they have "hope" for a better tomorrow; they are willing to work hard to get ahead, to build a better future, if not for themselves for their children.

The social elite take a step backwards, allowing the rising money elite to manifest control of the industrialization, providing hope. The social elite spend more and more time on Wall Street at the Stock Market investing in the new enterprises and the new corporations that emerge; they effectively transfer their sense of guilt for the hopelessness of the struggling to the rising middle-class, while at the same time they give the magic ingredient, "hope".

A symbol of hopelessness is apparent in the story about Bartleby; the symbol of hopelessness is also a fear of the social elite, because hopelessness could mean revolution and the demise of the rich. Thus, Wall Street is the perfect setting for the lawyer's story about Bartleby. Perhaps, the story itself fuels the changes that alleviate a sense of guilt, giving reason and justification for the unjust practices of business.

"Woman in Isolation” An Analysis of Hawthorne's The Birth-mark

By Trudy A. Martinez

The title of Hawthorne's short story The Birth-mark, gives significance to a congenital mark. Splitting the word birthmark by using a dash causes segregation and a discernment of meaning and a fragmenting preference, symbolizing isolation. As such, birth comes to mean existence, whereas mark imposes a visible sign that severs continuation. Consequently, in the story, the mark becomes an inherent element that serves as a symbol, indicative of position, within the society and an object of scorn unworthy of consideration.

This perception of the birth-mark generates an irony. The Socratic irony becomes the reason the birth-mark not only surfaces on the face of Georgiana as a sign of imperfect beauty but also a symbol of woman within society. Consequently, the birth-mark's representation serves to isolate.

Nevertheless, not all men within the society chose to view the birth-mark as an imperfection. For instance, Aminadab, a minor character, makes his membership in this category known when he displays a prevailing characteristic conforming to standards clearly conveying a sense of what is right and good. Aminadab conveys this "spirit and even...heart" when "he muttered to himself:--'If she were my wife, I'd never part with the birth-mark'" (Hawthorne 1159-1163). On the other hand, Georgiana's husband, Aylmer, takes a distinctively different view of the birth-mark.

The narrator proclaims Aylmer's belief that the birth-mark is "...the fatal flaw of humanity. . . ." Because of this recognition, his strong convictions and urgent desires emerge, communicating his being one of the "ardent votaries" of society. This becomes apparent when he attempts to alleviate "his wife's liability"(Hawthorne 1159-1160). Consequently, Aylmer earmarks himself as a God; this distinction gives him "hope".

However, the only "hope" Aylmer has is to join the love for his wife ". . . with the love for his science" because society defines his ". . . congenial . . . pursuits . . . ." Although these pursuits mark an agreement in sentiment, there is a possibility they might also produce an "aliment" in the process (Hawthorne 1159). Hence, an illusion of a disturbed uneasy state occurs; this uneasy state or "aliment" becomes visible because the cultural society defines only two classes. Both of the classes are men. This inadequacy isolates Georgiana from Aylmer. Her isolation is evident because she is undefined. Therefore, she is without status or membership. Consequently, she is as one of the pursuits of her husband.

The narrator validates her as Aylmer's pursuit when the narrator implies the pursuit is a "must" that must be "...wrought by toil and pain". The only alternative Aylmer is given to save her from the "toil and pain" is to bring together the love of his wife "...with the love of his science"(Hawthorne 1159-1160).

The narrator’s statement--"it was not unusual for the love of science to rival the love of woman"--sets the atmosphere and tone of the story and brings about a theme of isolation that, in turn, brings about another rivalry in the form of a challenge (Hawthorne 1159). The theme of isolation intensifies what the challenge produces when Aylmer attempts to unite his love for science with his love for his wife. The challenge serves to isolate her because she is one of his pursuits. In this perspective, Aylmer is a hunter and Georgiana is his prey. She is challenged by a condition, demanding of a declining transition. He maintains superiority through his "glares" and "gazes" as if an animal is sizing-up his victim. In a sense, the society causes Aylmer's extreme actions because the society creates ". . . a passive affect, [whereby] man is driven [by the ideology of the society], the object of motivations of which he himself is not aware"(Fromm 18). As a result, Hawthorne's scientific man is able to accomplish his feat with very little difficulty because he is powerful and "more than a man . . . unwilling to grant the accessibility of other alternatives"(Baxter 231).

Aylmer is not willing to afford Georgiana alternatives because she symbolizes imperfection. Her birth-mark symbolizes the mark placed upon woman by the society when woman is left undefined. As a result, Georgiana has only the choice of "do or die". For what other reason would she submit, declare, and plead: "...Life is a [burden] which I would fling down with joy...for the sake of your...peace, and to save [myself]...from madness". Her questioning remark: "Is this beyond your power...?" removes blame from Aylmer and places blame on society because society produces him (Hawthorne 1162).

Because of the question, "Is this beyond your power?” (Hawthorne 1162), society emerges as if it is a structure of dominoes falling downward upon its members. In other words, the society is the ruler of man (a God-like ornamentation) that produces and reproduces man in specific patterns as if imitating an original mold. This realization brings to mind a warning of Cotton Mather's: "The mind of God in these matters, is to be carefully looked into, with due circumspection, that Satan deceive us not with his devices, who transforms himself into an angel of light and may pretend justice and intend mischief"(171).

If a society has the power to reproduce distinct patterns in men, then conceivably, man is (under the structure of the society) an image of the God-like ornamentation, which in effect establishes opposition to any imperfections that might threaten the perfection of the society.

Consequently, this reader tends to disagree with Fetterley's realization that Georgiana died as a direct result of Aylmer's "...ultimate goal [towards] the desire to create human life" or that "Hawthorne [wrote]...about the sickness of men, [or] ...about the flawed and imperfect nature of women" (27).

Even though the symbol of imperfection is what surfaces on the face of Georgiana to denote Aylmer's struggle towards obtaining superiority through the creation of perfection, the atmosphere and the tone of the story in the opening paragraph is what pushes the structure of dominoes downward and sets man and woman in opposition. The society defines rivalry; hence, rivalry becomes the consequential cause of the isolating effects, resulting in Aylmer's quest of pursuits. His wife is his pursuits because society does not define her within its structure. As a result, society may be the only motive for the isolating effects that occur.

Therefore, and in conclusion, the title of the story symbolizes the principles of society that sets the path of the characters in The Birth-mark by linking and defining man's choices. Thus, woman becomes a pursuit of man to rid society of imperfection. However, because the woman is his "love" he attempts to join her with "his love for science" to save her from "toil and pain"(Hawthorne 1159-1160). The structural image of society creates the image of man in the image of a God that flaunts his image downward towards woman and gives her no choice other than to surrender his will. Just as Georgiana surrenders her being to win acceptance of her husband, Hawthorne surrenders his written theme for acceptance and consideration of others. Hawthorne's literary maneuver gives the circumstance of justice and injustice, which in turn, defines and distinguishes them within the society. The difference between of the two classes of men becomes the distinguishable quality of justice. This quality is reflected by their ability to recognize the birth-mark for what it is or is not. Likewise, because Aylmer fails to recognize and act upon the need of "hope" by his wife, he achieves perfection only in Georgiana's death. She dies because she lacks "hope". Her lack of "hope" becomes the society’s failure through ignorance and exclusion. Society denies her the "magic ingredient of hope" and leaves her with "No Choice". The choice of "No Choice" is the gauge that serves to place man as a God over her in man's pursuit of a Goddess, free from imperfection, that will measure up to his own God like image (and that had been provided to him by society). Society is the pacifying agent that justifies the inconceivable quest for perfection. Therefore, perfection becomes inevitable because only in death can Georgiana ever achieve it.

Was the reason for her death because Aylmer views her birth-mark as a symbol of the imperfection in society? I believe so because it is only through the essence of the end of the story that Georgiana suddenly becomes a symbol of perfection. Her lack of "hope" forcefully imprisons her in a society awaiting death by the means of her husband's hand as the oppressor.

Bibliography:

Baxter, Annette K. "Independence vs. Isolation: Hawthorne and James on the Problem of the Artist". Nineteenth Century Fiction. Vol 10 (Dec. 1955). 225-231.

Fetterley, Judith. "Women Beware Science: The Birthmark". The Resisting Reader. Indiana University Press: Indiana. 1978. 22-33.

Fromm, Erich. The Art of Loving. Perennial Library Edition. Vol.IX of the World Perspectives Series. Ruth Nanda Anshen, Editor. Harper Row: New York. 1974.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "The Birth-mark". Anthology of American Literature: Colonial Through Romantic. Vol I. Third Ed. George McMichael, ed. Macmillan Publishing Company: New York. 1980. 1159-1169.

Mather, Cotton. "The Wonders of the Invisible World: A Third Curiosity". Anthology of American Literature: Colonial Through Romantic. Vol I. Third Ed. George McMichael, ed. Macmillan Publishing Company: New York. 1980. 165-171.

"The Abyss of Solitude", An Analysis of Kate Chopin’s The Awakening

By Trudy A. Martinez

Reading and comprehending the novel, The Awakening, by Kate Chopin is an inordinately laborious experience, reminding the reader a woman's education is lacking during this period. The novel demands the mind of the reader to correspond the novel with appropriate grammar while interpolating and interpreting the historical progression of society from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century.  Anne Rowe cites Chopin's narrative as an "exploration . . . of such controversial topics as a woman's right to question society's expectation of her . . . "(232). This appears to be the reason Anne Rowe implies Chopin is ". . . assured her place . . . in the history of American literature . . . "(232). Anne Rowe states, "Kate Chopin's life began ordinarily enough giving little hint of controversy that would surround her" (228).  Rowe acknowledges a change came upon Chopin shortly after the American Civil War as Chopin "apparently underwent . . . withdrawal from most social activities during which she looked to escapist literature for relief"(229). Anne Rowe also acknowledges Kate Chopin is "ahead of her time in subject matter to a degree of her literary experimentation"(232). What Rowe does not recognize is the extent of Chopin's genius. Whereas, Mary Wollstonecraft says (and I tend to agree), "Rousseau declares . . . 'Opinion is the grave of virtue among the men; but its throne among women'. But, even with respect to the opinion of the world, I am convinced that this class of reasoners are mistaken" (133).

The theme of the novel concentrates on the marriage and life of a Southern American woman, Edna, who marries a man of a different religion in "violent opposition of her father . . . to her marriage with a Catholic" (Chopin 19). The belief is since ". . . the conduct of a woman is subservient to the public opinion, her faith in matters of religion should, for that very reason, be subject to authority"(Wollstonecraft 87).

As a consequential repercussion of Edna's marriage to Leonce Pontellier, Edna is subject to religious differences which leave her out of step with ". . . the order of nature . . ." (Wollstonecraft 87). Because women are "not in the capacity to judge for themselves", it is the feeling of a society of men that women should "abide by the decision of their fathers . . . as confidently as by that of the church" (Wollstonecraft 87).

Chopin uses Edna's father as a well-founded oracle, giving reason for consideration of the Civil War and the War's affects upon society. In this way, Chopin adds historical substance to the novel because Edna's father served in the Confederate army as a Colonel. The aftermath of the Civil war produces a force that causes a replacement or alteration of man's value system and thereby, woman's, the foundation for the "Love of Man" to conform to its purpose of "sameness", a concept of partnership (Fromm 12, 69, 70-89). This same force conditions the mind of the people to accept and withstand the cry of agony . . . while tilting the scales of justice in favor of social injustice; thus, affecting the status of women in marriage, in the family, and in the home, in all endeavors in a Jungle of progress (Martinez 1-5), the very heart of Chopin's novel.

There is an unnatural distinction within the society, in that, "...The private ...virtue of woman" is "...very problematical", for numerous male writers, including Rousseau, insist that woman "should...be subjected to a severe restraint, that of propriety" (Wollstonecraft 144). In the plot, Edna’s destiny is "to realize her position in the universe"; she is "to recognize her relationships as an individual" in her marriage, in her heart (Chopin 15), and in an unnatural society. It is a heavy "weight of wisdom" to bestow on such a young woman, "more wisdom than the Holy Ghost" normally confirms (Chopin 15).

Edna situation provides practical proof (Chopin 15). When she marries, she marries not for love; her marriage is more for prestige (Chopin 19). Edna marries outside of her class structure to a man of prominence, Mr. Pontellier, a French Creole, a member of the old social elite and an aristocracy (Culley 11). Edna weds with two strikes against her because not only does she marry a man from outside her religious beliefs but she also weds into a different culture. Although Edna considers her husband a kind and devoted man, she also weighs the emotional oppression she feels with uncertain anguish and without understanding in silence and solitude (Chopin 8). Edna's husband, Mr. Pontellier, demands Edna be a slave to his whims and that she understand his predominance; For example, he is to come and go as he pleases; she is not to question his actions; she is to be attentive to his desires at all times regardless of the time of day or night (Chopin 5-7). In short, Mr. Pontellier looks upon Edna as his property (Chopin 4).

Edna gains the knowledge she seeks, the knowledge few us find in the parables of the scriptures. "How many souls" perish from agitation? (Chopin 15). Edna's anguished feelings are a result of her husband's infliction of criticisms; Edna cannot explain it (Chopin 8). Nevertheless, she knew because of her husband's treatment towards her, she is effectively being stripped of her due benevolence as his wife as per the scripture I Corinthians 7:3. For instance, when Edna dares to discourage her husband through inattentive behavior one night, when her husband returns from Klein's hotel where he had joined other men for a game of cards, he immediately reciprocates with criticism finding fault where there is no fault, judging her quilt of neglect to him and to his children (Chopin 7-9). "How many souls" think their harassing works are the answer? (Chopin 15). Consequently, "Edna . . . lived her . . . life . . . within herself" in suffering, it is not her nature to complain. She is living a "dual life"; while outwardly she conforms inwardly she questions (and suffers) (Chopin 15). Of course, Mr. Pontellier justifies his actions through false implications of Edna being his "sole object of existence"; he is persistent and redundant (Chopin 7-9). Edna's inattentiveness is something Mr. Pontellier "felt rather than perceived, and he never voiced the feeling without . . . regret and ample atonement" (Chopin 9).

Because of his actions, Mr. Pontellier produces humanism in the form of materialism in restitution for the guilt he feels for his unnecessary harassment towards his wife. In other words since he is unable to justify his actions, he seeks forgiveness from his wife through the giving of money and materialism by way of gifts (Chopin 9).

As the recipient of such gifts, Edna is envied by the Creole women and is "forced to admit that she knew of none better", when her husband is declared "the best husband in the world" by them (Chopin 9). Therefore, materialism becomes the symbol of Edna's acceptance by the Creole women.

The Creole woman possess characteristics which differ from Edna as she grew up on a plantation; Edna is not subjected to living in close proximity to others until after her marriage to Mr. Pontellier; she was never exposed to women who spoke so frankly in mixed company (Chopin 6-11). Regardless of the fact that the married Creole woman is graceful and charming, there is a distinctive characteristic, which reflects an "absence of purity" about her. To Edna, the Creole woman has no freedom from evil or quilt, no innocence, no chastity (Chopin 9-11). In addition, the Creole woman worships her husband, a holy privilege that obliterates her individuality (Chopin 10).

In the ancestral past of Europeans, woman was subject to oppression, ridicule, torture, imprisonment, and death for inherent qualities said to be that of a witch, (the natural qualities of woman). With the sanction of the Catholic Church, women accused of witchcraft were tried, and burned at the stake. Persecution was a means of suppressing woman, controlling her, and causing her to change her nature to suit the purpose of man. As an indirect result of the historical experience, the Creole woman's nature differs; she is now like the Creole man; she demands perfection (Chopin 13). Consequently, this difference explains Adele's reasoning for demanding the adornment of her husband. "If Adele's husband did not adore her, he was a brute, deserving of death by slow torture" (Chopin 10). Because of being idolized, she, in turn, idolizes and overprotects her children leaving them unable to stand their ground among other children. Consequently, she over-emphasizes the role of the mother (Chopin 9-10).

In as much as there is a converse difference between Edna and the Creole women, a difference an observer might not recognize or distinguish without an emotional perception of a subjective point of view, Edna begins to form a close friendship with Adele with bonds of sympathy as well as love (Chopin 15-16). There is no distinction of class between Edna and Adele like that which arose in a new society between the social elite and the new money elite. The rising upper-middle class (the bourgeoisie) emerges with the industrialization following the Civil War to compete against the social elite. Evidence of this animosity presents itself in the novel when Mr. Pontellier (a member of the social elite) does not attend the soirees musicales with his wife because he considers the soirees musicales bourgeois (Chopin 68).

Edna begins to display a rebellious nature as the novel zeroes in on the values of specific members of the society during a historical period while at the same time sexism becomes a symbol of superiority over materialism (Martinez 2). Nevertheless, the question is "Would men...be content with rational friendship instead of slavish obedience"(Wollstonecraft 150). Chopin acknowledges Edna's rebellious protest when Mr. Pontellier says, "She's making it devilishly uncomfortable for me . . . She's got some sort of notion in her head concerning the eternal rights of women" (65). To symbolize rebellion and sexism, Edna's father, a Confederate Colonel of the Civil War, comes to visit (Chopin 67). In addition, the Pontellier household has a special guest for dinner, Dr. Mandelet, who responds to the invitation of Mr. Pontellier (Chopin 67). Dr. Mandelet told Mr. Pontellier: "Woman is a very peculiar organism . . . It would require an inspired psychologist to deal successfully with them" (Chopin 66). Thereby, Capitalism indirectly produces Freudianism as an answer to woman's dilemma (Martinez 5). Dr Mandelet, Mr. Pontellier, and Edna's father never consider the ramifications the after affects of a change in society has upon Edna (Chopin 64-71).

The Civil War had been a war where brother fought against brother, evolving America from an Agrarian society to a Capitalistic society. America's transformation causes to alter man's value system, the foundation for the "Love of man", to conform to the purpose of Capitalism (Fromm 6-76). A New Article of Faith within the society produces or introduces a family of new "hope", which allows subordination-ism of impersonal forces, which are dependent and reliant on the existence of the Imperial Force to guide all factions of society to their destiny (Martinez 2).

Edna is guided towards her destiny when she becomes disillusioned and begins to live for today (not thinking about tomorrow), a trait that is characteristic of the American society following war evolvement. "One of these days," she says, "I'm going to pull myself together for a while and think--try to determine what character of a woman I am; for, candidly, I don't know . . . I must think about it" (Chopin 82).

The Creole husband was never jealous, as there was an honor among men. To him the mortification of passion or the interruption of circulation of passion is one who has become diminutive by discontinuance or practice (Chopin 12). For another man to lust after her made him feel proud. On Grand Isle, Mr. Pontellier even encourages participation to an extent in the prevention of boredom by his wife of her situation (Chopin 4-12).

The main character of the novel, Edna, the southern American woman, is shown love as God, our Lord, had intended by way of a friend, a single man, Robert Lebrum. Robert lacks the desire to pursue or gain through endeavor for wealth; he gives forth sudden, brief utterances of repeated expressions of appreciation and of affection; and yet he is a perfect gentleman (Chopin 12). The reality of a changed society does not affect him; Robert remains a unique individual untouched by intense ambitions for materialistic gain (Chopin 61). The new individualism introduced to society with the industrialization of America had not replaced Robert's uniqueness (Martinez 2). As a repercussion of Edna's attraction for Robert, she alters her priorities.

"...When a woman is admired for her beauty, and suffers herself to be so far intoxicated by the admiration she receives, as to neglect to discharge the indispensable duty of a mother, she sins against herself by neglecting to cultivate an affection that would equally tend to make her useful and happy"(Wollstonecraft 142).

As an indirect result of Robert's unchanged values, his love is unobtainable (Chopin 111). The love for which Edna longs leaves her in state of un-fulfillment (Chopin 114). Edna's destiny is pre-ordained, that is, if Edna tries, if Edna struggles, if Edna works hard, but only, if Edna Conforms (Martinez 3).

"...The interest of each individual (is) to be virtuous; and thus private virtue becoming the cement of public happiness, an orderly whole is consolidated by the tendency of all the parts towards a common centre (Wollstonecraft 144).

The behavioral tactics of the forces within a changed society (Martinez 1-5) conditions Edna. Edna changes; she becomes more attentive to the children (Chopin 47). Edna had had hope for a better tomorrow; she is willing to work hard to get ahead, to build a better future, if not for herself for her children.

Edna loves her children:

"She wept for the very pleasure when she felt their little arms clasping her; their hard, ruddy cheeks pressed against her own glowing cheeks. She looked into their faces with hungry eyes that could not be satisfied with looking. In addition, what stories they had to tell their mother! About the pigs, the cows, the mules!...It was a thousand times more fun to haul real chips for...real fire than to drag painted blocks along the banquette on Esplanade Street!” (Chopin 93). "It was with a wrench and a pang that Edna left her children" (Chopin 94) with old Madame Pontellier.

Edna has a dream (Chopin 98); she wants to be with her love, Robert (Chopin 110). However, her best friend, Adele, the Creole woman, needs her. Chopin uses the opportunity of separating Edna from Robert with the pretence of helping a friend to acknowledge Edna's fear for her children. When her best friend, the Creole woman, says, "Think of the children, Edna. Oh, think of the children! Remember them!” (109) she reinforces Edna’s fear for her children. However, Edna has already thought of her children. As a result, she became lost in an unfulfilled dream; she gave into temptation. Edna reverts to materialism by promising the children "Bonbons" in restitution for her quilt of separating herself from them (Chopin 102) just as her husband did her in the past (Chopin 9). Conversely, Mr. Pontellier does not recognize his promises in the same manner (Chopin 7).

"Parents often love their children in the most brutal manner, and sacrifice

every relative duty to promote their advancement in the world" (Wollstonecraft 150).

Edna's knowledge of her own transgressions and the loss of her love, Robert, sent her in protest of the affects of historical progression upon her and her life. Women in general fled into the streets, into the work place, in flight from their home and family, in search of a truth, in search for the answer to their dilemma. Edna was no exception.

Edna repeatedly said, "The voice of the sea is seductive, never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude"(Chopin 15, 113). Edna soars like "'the bird above the level plain of tradition and prejudice"(Chopin 82). However, her wings are not strong enough; therefore, she becomes "a sad spectacle...bruised, exhausted " as she flutters "back to earth" (Chopin 82). Consequently, she is to find her peace in the solitude of the sea where "the voice of the sea speaks to the soul" (Chopin 15). Chopin attests to the significance of the Civil War when "Edna looked into the distance and the old terror flamed up..."(Chopin 114). Then "Edna heard her father's voice and... The spurs of the cavalry officer clanged..."(Chopin 114). The reader's imagination allows, "The touch of the sea" to become "sensuous, enfolding" [Edna's] "body in its soft, close embrace" (Chopin 15).

In conclusion, an analysis should reflect and acknowledge the historical progression, the after affects of the Civil War, and the war's consequential influence upon a society and its members. The implications of a societal change, class structure, and the values of man and woman that subsequently emerge following a war are a well-found revelation in consideration for what seems to be the author's intended message. Hence, historical progression contributes to a consequential, unabridged, revered understanding of the novel's theme and substance that, in turn, gives the novel historical significance.

Bibliography:

Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. A Norton Critical Edition. (Culley, M. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1976.

Culley, M. Marginal Note. The Awakening. By Chopin, Kate. New York: University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 1976.

I Corinthians 7:3. The Holy Bible. Kings James Version.

Fromm, Erick. The Art of Loving. World Perspective Series, Volume IX. Anshen, Ruth Nanda, ed. New York, New York: Harper & Row, 1959

Martinez, Trudy. "Birth of the Impersonal Forces and an Analysis of Upton Sinclair's The Jungle"(an interpretation of history for the period 1865-1900). Written for Dr. Don Rosenberg, History 17B, Cerro Coso Community College, .Summer,1990.

Rowe, Anne. "Kate Chopin". The History of Southern Literature: The War and After, 1861-1920, Part II. Rubin, Jackson, Moore, Simpson, and Young, Editors. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 185. 228-232.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of The Rights of Woman. A Norton Critical Edition. (Poston, Carol H., ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1975. 3-194.